The Cultural Character of the Poets in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty

Mr. Lu Xun (魯迅, 1881 - 1936) once said, "I believe that all good poetry had already been written by the Tang dynasty. Unless one is a 'Great Sage Equal to Heaven' who can leap out of the Tathagata's palm, there is no need to bother trying (我以為一切好詩，到唐已被做完，此後倘非能翻出如來掌心之『齊天大聖』，大可不必動手)." This shows the unique place Tang poetry holds in the history of Chinese poetry.

Equal Emphasis on the Three Teachings

The period from the first year of Emperor Xuanzong's Kaiyuan era (開元元年713; 唐玄宗, 685-762 ) to the first year of Emperor Daizong's Yongtai era (永泰元年765; 唐代宗, 726-779 ) was the most flourishing stage in the development of Tang poetry, known in literary history as the "the heyday of the Tang Dynasty (盛唐時期)." In just over fifty years, more than a dozen great poets emerged. Their experiences differed and their styles varied, yet together they expressed the cultural character of this period.

In terms of cultural thought, the most striking feature of the heyday was the equal emphasis placed on the "Three Teachings": Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. This parity among the Three Teachings enriched people's spiritual lives and gave poets ample resources for their creative work. This rich and varied culture had a considerable influence on the formation of poets' character and on their poetic creation: Poetry in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty was a reflection of that period, and the distinctive character of the poets during that period was likewise shaped by that culture.

The Confucian Spirit

After Confucianism was established as the orthodox doctrine in the Han dynasty, its moral ethics and values became a kind of latent cultural gene, and the thoughts and conduct of poets in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty also showed a clear tendency toward Confucianization. Confucius (孔子, 551 BC – 479 BC) once said:

"The officer may not be without breadth of mind and vigorous endurance. His burden is heavy and his course is long. Perfect virtue is the burden which he considers it is his to sustain - is it not heavy? Only with death does his course stop - is it not long?"

士不可以不弘毅，任重而道遠。仁以為己任，不亦重乎﹖死而後已，不亦遠乎？

— Confucius (《論語》)

Beginning with Confucius, the standard for the character of a scholar has been to take the world as one's own responsibility, to hold a deep concern for the state and the people, and to possess a spirit of sacrifice that values the Way over desire.

Many works by poets during that period embody the Confucian ideal of engaging with the world. The poet Li Bai (李白, 701-762), filled with lofty ambition, longed to serve his country; in "Ode to Gallantry (《俠客行》)" he declares that even if he were to give up his life, "Though he met his death, the backbone of chivalry lives on; a hero worthy of the name in this world (縱死俠骨香，不慚世上英)." Du Fu (杜甫, 712-770), the "Poet Sage (詩聖)," was driven by concern for the state and its people. In "A long poem written on the Journey from the Chang’an to Fengxian (《自京赴奉先縣詠懷》)" "A Poem Composed After the Autumn Winds Tore Apart My Thatched Cottage (《茅屋為秋風所破歌》)" "Spring View (《春望》)" and "White Emperor City (《白帝》)" what he worries about is not his own fate but his country and its people. "A Poem Composed After the Autumn Winds Tore Apart My Thatched Cottage" describes the poet's distress when the wind tears apart his thatched roof and the rain leaking in at night leaves him unable to sleep. He hopes for " How can I find tens of thousands of spacious houses, To shelter all the poor scholars under heaven, so that every one of them can be happy and smile. (安得廣廈千萬間，大庇天下寒士俱歡顏) "; and if that wish came true, the poet declares: "Even if only my own thatched hut is wrecked and I freeze to death myself, I would gladly accept it (吾廬獨破受凍死亦足)."

The Spirit and Flavor of Daoism

Daoist thought also flourished during the heyday of Tang dynasty. Thanks to the patronage of the emperors, the "Laozi (《老子》)" and the "Zhuangzi (《莊子》)" remained required reading for the scholars of the Tang dynasty. As a result, Tang poetry was also permeated by Daoist culture, deeply imbued with its profound spirit and flavor.

Zhuangzi (莊子, 369 BC – 286 BC) said that "(The sage) deliberately and artificially devised rites and music in order to restrain and regulate the demeanor and conduct of all people under heaven (屈折禮樂以匡天下之形)." It was "the fault of the sages (聖人之過)."¹  He opposed the constraints that ritual propriety placed on human nature and sought the freedom and liberation of the individual. Tang poets were deeply influenced by this. Looking down on fame and rank, they openly mocked the sages of Confucianism, displaying a spirit of rebellion:

I am like Jie Yu, the uninhibited hermit of Chu, singing the Song of Phoenix and mocking Confucius for bustling about in pursuit of office.

Holding my immortal's staff inlaid with green jade, I take leave of the Yellow Crane Tower at dawn and set out.

I will seek immortals on the Five Great Mountains, unafraid of the distance; all my life, I have loved nothing more than roaming famous mountains.

我本楚狂人，鳳歌笑孔丘。

手持綠玉杖，朝別黃鶴樓。

五岳尋仙不辭遠，一生好入名山游。

— Li Bai, "Song of Mount Lu (《廬山謠》)"

People say that Li Bai had the air of an immortal and the bearing of a Daoist, and that his thinking was strongly Daoist. In this poem, the poet compares himself to Jie Yu (Lu Tong [陸通], Jie Yu [接舆] is his courtesy name), the uninhibited hermit of Chu, singing the Song of Phoenix (《鳳兮歌》) to mock Confucius, who traveled from state to state in a chaotic age peddling his ideas, running into walls everywhere without ever waking up to his folly. Casting himself as the one who alone is awake, he regarded fame and wealth as dung, and found his true satisfaction in transcending the world and roaming freely among mountains and rivers.

The Buddhist Heart and the Spirit of Chan

The Heyday of Tang Dynasty was the period when the sinicization of Buddhism reached maturity. The poets of this period shared a deep affinity with Buddhism: some befriended monks widely, some studied the Buddhist scriptures closely, and some practiced Chan (禪) meditation and expressed its principles in verse. The poet Wang Wei (王維, 701-761) was a devout Buddhist with profound learning in Buddhist thought, and his poetry often blends in the spirit of Chan.

Wang Wei was born into a family that had served as officials for generations. From childhood he was shaped by traditional Confucian culture and hoped to realize his ambition of governing the state. His official career, however, was full of setbacks, and his disillusionment with real-world politics deepened his faith in Buddhism, especially the Chan school. Wang Wei's "Deer Enclosure (《鹿柴》)":

The empty mountain is silent, with no figure in sight; only the echo of voices can be heard.

空山不見人，但聞人語響。

The slanting rays of the setting sun reach deep into the forest; then fall once more upon the green moss.

返景入深林，復照青苔上。

This whole poem depicts an ethereal, tranquil mood: in the empty hills, no trace of a person can be seen, yet the sound of human voices can be heard. The lingering rays of the setting sun shine into the dense forest, and the scene is tinged with a faint dimness and emptiness. The Chan school stresses "a mind unattached to circumstances (對境無心)" and "non-abiding as the foundation (無住為本)," which means not letting joy, sorrow, or any other emotion arise in response to any circumstance. Wang Wei approached people and affairs with a Chan attitude, which gave him a serene state of mind, and he then infused this state of mind into his works, so that his poetry gleams with the light and shadow of Chan Buddhism.

The diverse and open cultural thought of the Heyday of Tang Dynasty produced a group of outstanding poets. The achievements of the poetry during this period were precisely the result of the interplay between the cultural spirit of the age and the poets' pursuit of moral character. The successful creative practice of these poets may well offer valuable lessons for the new poetry now on the rise.