Cultural Beliefs and Temple Architectural Features of the Teochew Community in Southern Vietnam (Part 2): The Historical Development of the Teochew Community in Southern Vietnam (2)

Due to the increasing number of Chinese people scattered across various locations and living among local ethnic groups, the Nguyễn dynasty ordered the establishment of bang (guild) organizations in various regions to serve as self-governing bodies for the Chinese community, managing their migration and settlements with relatively close oversight. According to the "The Veritable Records of the Great South, Main Compilation (《大南寔錄正編》, Đại Nam Thực Lục, Chính biên)", Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (阮福映，1762-1820) established the "Seven Prefectures (七府, Thất phủ)"¹ in 1790 to govern them:

"All Chinese people from Guangdong, Fujian, Hainan, Teochew, and Shanghai provinces who reside locally and are subject to the jurisdiction of this country shall have one official each of the designated prefectural and recording prefectural positions established for each native-place community."

(令凡廣東、福建、海南、潮州、上海各省『唐人』之寓轄者，省置該府、記府各一)

 (First Chronicle, Volume 4, Second Month [第一紀，卷四，二月]).

By 1826, Nguyễn Phúc Kiểu (阮福晈, 1791-1841) continued his father's system and further established "Bang Truong (幫長)" to facilitate administration:

"Previously, regarding the Chinese people who had come to seek refuge and settled in the towns, markets, and shops under the jurisdiction of the court, the court had long since issued orders to the local garrison officials to categorize the people from Fujian, Guangdong, Teochew, Hainan, and other places according to their respective native places, conduct household registration investigations and compile separate dedicated registers, and appoint Bang Truong to oversee and manage them. "

(前者唐人投居城轄，民間鋪市，業令所在鎮臣，據福建、廣東、潮州、海南等處人，各從其類，查著別簿，置『幫長』以統攝之。)

(Second Chronicle, Volume 40, Seventh Month [第二紀，卷四十，七月])

The Chapter "Ministry of Revenue: Qing‑era Chinese Migrants (戶部清人)" of "Collected Institutions and Precedents of the Great South (《大南會典事例》, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ)" records the following:

"If Chinese migrants came south to submit and pledge allegiance, they were required to comply with existing regulations, being registered into the Qing Bang (清人幫籍) and paying taxes accordingly. The descendants born to those registered in the Qing Bang were strictly prohibited from shaving their heads and wearing the Manchu-style queue. When descendants reached the age of eighteen, the Bang Truong was required to report to the authorities, transferring their registration into the Minh-Huong (明鄉) household registers, with taxes to be paid in full accordance with the established practices of the Minh-Huong people. Only under special and unavoidable circumstances was it permitted for individuals to remain registered under their grandfather's Qing Bang. "

(各地若有清人南來投靠，遵守既有的規定案例，將其登入清人幫籍，繳納稅賦。清人幫籍人所出的子孫，均不得剃髮垂辮。年到十八者，幫長即行報官，登入明鄉簿籍，依明鄉慣例繳納稅賦。若不得已乃從該祖父登入清人幫籍。)

"Within the jurisdiction of a single province, if there was already both a Qing Bang and an established Minh-Huong commune, then the descendants of Qing Bang members would be registered under the Minh-Huong commune. If a province had only a Qing Bang and no Minh-Huong commune had yet been established, the descendants of Qing Bang members would be temporarily registered within the Qing Bang; once the Minh-Huong registered population reached five persons or more, a separate Minh-Huong commune would be established. If there were only one or two people, fewer than five, the establishment of a new commune was not permitted; they were allowed to be recorded as supplementary entries in the Qing Bang household register, but the register was required to clearly indicate how many Minh-Huong registered individuals were included. Once the number reached five, a separate Minh-Huong commune was to be immediately established. Local officials were to compile household registers and submit them to the Board of Revenue, with taxes collected in accordance with established regulations."

(省管轄內，除原有之清人幫外，又有明鄉社民者，該幫人之子孫即由明鄉社登錄籍簿。若省屬只有清人幫，而無明鄉社者，其該幫人之子與孫輩們，暫時登錄為清人幫籍，一旦出現五名以上的明鄉籍人，立即另立明鄉社。儻若僅有一、二人，不及五人者，不應另立一社，聽其併入清人幫登記籍簿，但須註明有明鄉社籍人若干名，一旦湊足五名之數，即另立明鄉社。由該地方官編冊到部裡，照慣例繳納稅收。)²

The above text reveals the Nguyễn Dynasty's administrative measures toward the Chinese, and their particular concern with distinguishing between Minh-Huong people and Qing migrants. In practice, since the Minh-Huong people had rendered great meritorious service during the Nguyễn Dynasty's restoration period, the authorities treated them with a higher degree of favor, and many descendants of Minh-Huong people, such as Lý Văn Phức (李文馥, 1785-1849), Trịnh Hoài Đức (鄭懷德, 1765-1825), Ngô Nhân Tĩnh (吳仁靜, 1761-1813), and Phan Thanh Giản (潘清簡, 1796 - 1867), were appointed as high-ranking officials at court. The "Comprehensive Records of Gia‑Định (《嘉定城通志》, Gia Định Thành Thông Chí)", written by Trịnh Hoài Đức during the period of 1802–1820, confirms that at the time there were sea routes from southern Vietnam to various parts of China, including a route to Teochew:

"The scholar-officials of Phiên An Trấn (藩安鎮) valued reputation and moral integrity, while popular customs favored extravagance. Ritual music, civil education, clothing, residences, and everyday utensils were largely the same as in China. In the two districts (縣, huyện) of Bình Dương (平陽) and Tân Long (新隆), the population was densely settled, with shops and markets stretching on without end, and multi-story buildings of timber, brick, and tile standing row upon row. Merchant vessels traveled freely to and from Fujian, Guangdong, Teochew, Hainan (locally, Qiongzhou Prefecture was commonly called Hainan), the Western Seas, Siam, and other lands, making it a prominent city of the Gia Định region. "

(藩安鎮士重名節，俗尚奢華，文物、服舍、器用多與中國同。平陽、新隆二縣，民居稠密，舖市聯絡，樑家瓦屋比比相望，多通福建、廣東、潮州、海南、西洋、暹羅諸國。集為嘉定一大都。)³

Regarding the urban spaces of the Chinese settlements in Saigon (西貢, Sài Gòn)  and Cholon (堤岸, Chợ Lớn), Trịnh Hoài Đức also provided detailed descriptions. He particularly noted that at the time, there were numerous Teochew settlements in Sài Gòn (柴棍, today’s Saigon), and that, like the Fujianese and Cantonese communities, the Teochew people had established their own guild halls:

"At the northern end of the main street stood an old Temple of Guan Di, with the guild halls of Fuzhou, Guangdong, and Teochew arrayed to its left and right. On the western side of the middle section of the main street was the Temple of the Heavenly Empress, and slightly further west lay the Wenzhou Guild Hall; at the southwestern end of the main street was the Zhangzhou Guild Hall. On auspicious days and festive evenings — during the Three Prime festivals and on the first and fifteenth of each month — every establishment vied to display magnificent decorations: colored lanterns rose like trees, the reflections of bridges shimmered like stars, and jade and brocade seemed to gather in abundance. Drums and music filled the air, men and women thronged together, making it truly the most bustling and lively marketplace in the city. "

(大街北頭本舖關帝廟，福州、廣東、潮州三會館分峙左右，大街中之西天后廟，稍西温陵會館，大街南頭之西漳州會館。凡佳晨良夜，三元朔望，懸設案閗巧爭奇，如火樹星橋，錦城瑤會，鼓吹諠闐，男女簇擁，是都會熱鬧一大舖市。)⁴

Before Trịnh Hoài Đức (鄭懷德) completed the "Comprehensive Records of Gia‑Định", Teochew people had long been settled in southern Vietnam, though the documentary records that survive from this period are relatively scarce. In the early days of migration to Vietnam, the Chinese established Assembly Halls (會館) as gathering places and mutual aid residences for fellow natives, with attached temples for the veneration of deities, ancestors, and wandering spirits without refuge. The Teochew people were no exception. The Chinese assembly halls in Vietnam fell into two categories: the Ming Hương assembly halls, led by the Minh-Huong people (明鄉人), and those led by the Five Bangs of Chinese (五幫華人) — namely the Fujian assembly hall (福建會館), the Guangzhao assembly hall (Cantonese Bang [廣肇會館, 廣東幫]), the Teochew assembly hall (潮州會館), the Qiongfu assembly hall (Hainanese gang [瓊府會館, 海南幫]), and the Hakka assembly hall (客家會館). According to Wu Jing-yi (吳靜宜), the assembly hall organizations of Vietnamese Chinese were characterized by diversified operations, catering to the various needs of fellow natives, including hospitals, temples, schools, gymnasiums, and charitable home (義莊). What was particularly distinctive was that the assembly halls and temples of the Vietnamese Chinese were often combined into a single institution.⁵

There are now more than a dozen Teochew Assembly Halls throughout central and southern Vietnam, each with slightly different names. The major assembly halls from north to south include: the Hội An Teochew Assembly Hall [會安潮汕會館] (360 Nguyễn Duy Hiệu, Cẩm Châu, Hội An, Quảng Nam), the Lái Thiêu Teochew Assembly Hall [莱眺潮州會館] (11 Gia Long, Lái Thiêu, Thuận An, Bình Dương), the Thủ Dầu Một Teochew Assembly Hall [土龍木潮州會館] (307 Thích Quảng Đức, Phú Cường, Thủ Dầu Một, Bình Dương), the Nghĩa An Teochew Assembly Hall [潮州義安㑹館] (678 Nguyễn Trãi, Phường 11, Quận 5, Hồ Chí Minh), the Gò Công Teochew Assembly Hall [鵝貢潮州會館] (23 Đường Rạch Gầm, Phường 1, Gò Công, Tiền Giang), and the Bạc Liêu Teochew Assembly Hall [扒草潮州會館] (Thị trấn Mỹ Xuyên, Mỹ Xuyên, Sóc Trăng), among others. This indicates that, beyond their concentration in Saigon and Cholon, the Teochew people are also distributed throughout various coastal areas of southern Vietnam, such as the provinces and cities of Trà Vinh (茶榮), Sóc Trăng (滀臻), Bạc Liêu (薄遼), Cà Mau (金甌), and Cần Thơ (芹苴), where they have excelled in farming, fishing, salt production, animal husbandry, and handicrafts. In addition, overseas Chinese from southern Vietnam who emigrated abroad after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975 also established Teochew Assembly Halls in their new countries of residence, such as the Southern California Teochew assembly hall in the United States.⁶

Compared to other communities, the Teochew people settled in Saigon in relatively smaller numbers, and to this day only one Teochew assembly hall remains in Saigon — the Nghĩa An Assembly Hall (義安會館, Hội quán Nghĩa An)⁷. The hall was established in 1840 (with an alternative account citing 1737⁸), jointly built by the Teochew and Hakka communities. Its principal deity is Guan Di (關帝), with secondary deities including the Earth God (福德正神, Fude Zhenshen), the Heavenly Mother (天后媽祖, Mazu), the Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝), the God of Literature (文昌帝君, Wenchang Dijun), and the God of Wealth (財白星君, Caibai Xingjun), among others. The hall also housed a school, a hospital, and a charitable home, and was handed over to the new government's administration after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. To the left of the hall once stood Trường Sùng Chính (崇正學校, Chongzheng School), which has since been renamed Trường Tiểu học Chính Nghĩa (正義小學, Chính Nghĩa Primary School), serving both Chinese and Vietnamese students. Inside the hall, fifteen stone inscriptions remain to this day, recording the three renovations of the hall's buildings — in the fifth year of the Tongzhi reign (同治五年, 1866), the twenty-eighth year of the Guangxu reign (光緒二十八年, 1902), and 1969 — along with inscriptions commemorating the names of benefactors. By examining the content of the three renovation inscriptions within the hall, one can gain some understanding of the arduous journey the Teochew merchants and settlers endured over approximately two hundred years as they strove to make a living and establish themselves:

"Our Nghĩa An (Yi An, 義安) Assembly Hall brings together merchants from all walks of life, each carrying a heart of reverence and respect. United in fellowship and of one mind, we strive to do good and uphold benevolence; we pray for smooth and prosperous business endeavors, favorable conditions, and stability in all directions, so that our great undertakings may flourish and the world may enjoy peace and harmony. Our predecessors, harboring great and far-reaching aspirations, journeyed to this southern land to select a site and establish the assembly hall. Surrounded by rolling mountains and winding waters, the landscape is imbued with an aura of spiritual grace and enriched by a warm and wholesome character — truly a place of exceptional beauty. Our Cantonese compatriots founded the Nghĩa An Assembly Hall to enshrine and pay tribute. "⁹

(我義安會館商賈輻輳必恭敬止，聯義同德，取善輔仁，經營順遂，地利相安，鴻圖大展，海晏河清。前輩遠志擇地南邦，山環水繞毓秀鍾靈，風景醇醇名區勝地。我粵人創建義安會館崇祀。)

"This Assembly Hall a long history of establishment! In the beginning, numerous business leaders from both the Teochew and Hakka communities joined forces to lay the foundation of the hall. All fellow villagers from our two communities who came to the Nanyang (南洋, Southern Ocean) could rely on this place to forge bonds of kinship, gather together, and discuss business affairs. To this day, horizontal plaques bearing the names of both assembly halls are hung on either side of the entrance tower, with the Teochew and Hakka plaques facing each other in a brilliant display, enhancing the grandeur and dignity of the assembly hall. As for the reason behind the name "Yi An (義安, Nghĩa An)": it is largely because the sons and daughters of the Teochew and Hakka communities have been coming to this land in succession since the Tang Dynasty, and when fellow villagers meet, they are either relatives or old acquaintances. The ancients said: friendships are bound by righteousness; if one can forge bonds through righteousness, there is no one with whom harmony cannot be achieved (朋友之道以義合，苟能以義合，故無不可以相安者). And since this land was anciently known as Annan (安南), the two characters "Yi" (義, righteousness) and "An" (安) were taken to form the name Yi An Assembly Hall. "¹⁰

(會館之建設久矣！其初為潮客兩幫諸商董協力同心創成基址。凡吾兩幫人等來南者皆得賴以聯絡鄉情，會議商務。即今左右門楣懸掛公所，潮客兩幫相對輝映，所以壯會館之觀瞻也！取其名為義安云者：蓋以潮客自唐所來，人色非其親朋即其故友。古人有言：朋友之道以義合，苟能以義合，故無不可以相安者。而是地人適以安南名，於是義安二字遂因之而成立。)

"The Assembly Hall, established and expanded by its predecessors and further developed by those who followed, is fully and splendidly equipped with all essential facilities for the welfare of the living and the peaceful rest of the departed — including hospitals, schools, public shrines, and cemeteries. "¹¹

(本館經前人之創建擴充，後繼者之發揚滋孺舉，凡醫院、學校、公祠、義山等，養生安逝之要務，莫不燦然具備。)

It is evident that the Teochew assembly hall was not merely a place for worshipping deities and recreating hometown culture, but also served as a gathering place where fellow townspeople could meet, maintain connections, provide mutual aid, and deliberate on matters of public welfare. Because the assembly hall played such a significant role in the lives of immigrants, it garnered their enthusiastic support and active participation. This deep sense of attachment to one's hometown was something that other local ethnic groups had scarcely ever experienced.

The Teochew people in southern Vietnam, though fewer in number than the Cantonese and Fujianese, have nonetheless achieved significant accomplishments in various fields, with some becoming prominent figures in the south, such as the Thiền sư Nguyên Thiều (元韶禪師, the Chan Master Yuanshao 1648-1728), Quách Đàm (郭琰, Guo Yan 1863-1927), and Vương Hồng Sển (王鴻盛, 1902-1996). Quách Đàm (郭琰) was a native of Chao'an Village in Teochew who migrated to Cholon in his youth and made a living trading scrap materials, cattle hides, and fishing nets before entering the rice trade under the business name "Tonghe (通合)." He soon amassed great wealth and became widely known throughout Cholon. At the time, the Bình Tây Market (平西市場) had been destroyed by fire, and Quách Đàm (郭琰) funded the construction of a new Bình Tây Market on nearby land, blending Chinese and Western architectural styles. He also built shops around the market to rent out, becoming one of the wealthiest overseas Chinese tycoons in Southeast Asia at the time. The market remains intact to this day and serves as an important commercial center in Ho Chi Minh City; the merchants and residents of the market once erected a bronze statue of Quách Đàm (郭琰) in his memory.¹² Quách Đàm (郭琰) made enormous contributions to the Teochew community in Cholon. He advocated for the establishment of a Teochew Mutual Aid Association (潮州同鄉會), housed it within the Teochew Assembly Hall, and funded the construction of shops around the hall to be rented out, with the annual rental income used to cover the hall's operating expenses.¹³ The "Inscription on the Reconstruction of the Nghĩa An Assembly Hall (《重建義安會館碑記》)" records that Quách Đàm (郭琰) donated a substantial sum to sponsor the renovation of the hall — "Tonghe Company gladly and willingly donated two thousand one hundred silver dollars (通合號喜捐銀二千一百元)." In addition, cherishing the sentiment of returning to one's roots, he enthusiastically funded the repatriation of the ashes of deceased Teochew people in Vietnam back to their homeland, entrusting them to the Cunxin Charitable Hall (存心善堂) in Shantou (汕頭) for safekeeping and notifying their families to collect and bury them. This act of benevolence was warmly welcomed by Teochew associations both at home and abroad.¹⁴

Reference

1. The "Seven Prefectures" included Guangzhou (廣州), Teochew (潮州), Qiongzhou (瓊州), Fuzhou (福州), Quanzhou (泉州), Zhangzhou (漳州), and Ningbo (寧波, or Huizhou [徽州]). These self-governing Chinese organizations, distinguished by place of origin, had existed since Nguyen Phuc Anh's rule over the south and were subsequently retained by French colonizers. In 1871, the French colonial government divided the Chinese residents of "Cholon (Chợ Lớn)" in Saigon into seven prefectures: Guangzhao (廣肇), Teochew, Fujian, Hainan, Fuzhou, and Qiongzhou; in 1885, the original "Chinese Bang (華人幫籍)" administrative system was adopted, incorporating Fuzhou into the Fujian bang (福建幫) and Qiongzhou into the Hainan bang (海南幫), after which the Seven Prefectures were renamed the Five Bangs (五幫). 李白茵：《越南華僑與華人》（桂林：廣西師範大學出版社，1990），頁52。

2.［阮］阮朝國史館：《大南會典事例》（卷 44，戶部清人）。

3. ［阮］鄭懷德：《嘉定城通志•風俗志》（河內：教育出版社，1999年），頁389。

4. ［阮］ 鄭懷德：《嘉定城通志•城池志》（河內：教育出版社，1999年），頁490-491。

5. 吳靜宜：《越南華人遷移史與客家話的使用——以胡志明市為例》，國立中央大學客家語文研究所碩士論文，2010。

6. According to Prof. Chen Ching-ho (陳荊和教授), during the Tongzhi period (同治年間, 1862-1874), an increasing number of Hainanese, Teochew, and Cantonese people engaged in commerce in Huế, leading to the successive establishment of the Qiongzhou Guild Hall (Tianhou Temple), the Guangzhao Guild Hall (Guan Di Temple), and the Teochew Guild Hall. Subsequently, due to frequent warfare, the influence of the Chinese community diminished and Vietnamese people took over their management. Some of the guild halls were converted into Buddhist temples or Vietnamese public shrines, no longer retaining the appearance of Chinese guild halls. 陳荊和：〈17、18世紀之南越華僑—1968年2月28日香港大學亞洲研究中心演講〉，《新亞生活》，1968年5月10日，頁2。

7. Ho Chi Minh City currently has a total of 15 Chinese ancestral halls, including four Fujian halls: Hội quán Hà Chương (霞章會館, Xia Zhang Assembly Hall), Hội quán Ôn Lăng (溫嶺會館, Wenling Assembly Hall), Tam Sơn hội quán (三山會館, Sanshan Assembly Hall), and Hội quán Nhị Phủ (二府會館, Erfu Assembly Hall), two Guangdong halls: Hội quán Tuệ Thành (穗城會館, Suicheng Assembly Hall) and Quảng Triệu Hội Quán (廣肇會館, Guangzhao Assembly Hall), one Hainan hall: Quỳnh Phủ Hội quán (瓊府會館, Qiongfu Assembly Hall), two Hakka halls: Hội Quán Quần Tân (羣賓會館, Qunbin Assembly Hall) and Hội Quán Sùng Chính (崇正會館, Chongzheng Assembly Hall), four Minh-Huong halls: Minh Hương Gia Thạnh Hội Quán (明鄉嘉盛會館, MingXiang Jiasheng Assembly Hall), Hội quán Nghĩa Nhuận (義潤會館, Yirun Assembly Hall), Lệ Châu Hội Quán (麗珠會館, Lizhu Assembly Hall), and Đình Phong Phú (豐富會館, Fengfu Assembly Hall), one Taiwan hall: Hội Quán Kim Môn (金門會館, Jinmen Assembly Hall), and the remaining one being the Teochew hall: Nghĩa An Hội Quán (義安會館, Yi An Assembly Hall).

8. 陳紅蓮：《南部華人文化：信仰與宗教》（胡志明市：社會科學出版社，2005）。

9. "Inscription on the Renovation of the Yi An Assembly Hall (〈重修義安會館碑記〉)", inscribed in the 5th year of the Tongzhi reign (同治五年, 1866), cited from: 范玉紅：《胡志明市漢喃碑文：考究與介紹》（胡志明市：總合出版社，2020），頁149。

10. "Inscription on the Renovation of the Yi An Assembly Hall (〈重修義安會館碑記〉)", inscribed in the 28th year of the Guangxu reign (光緒二十八年, 1902), cited from: 范玉紅：《胡志明市漢喃碑文：考究與介紹》（胡志明市：總合出版社，2020），頁148。

11. "Inscription on the Renovation of the Yi An Assembly Hall (〈重修義安會館碑記〉)", inscribed in 1969, cited from: 范玉紅：《胡志明市漢喃碑文：考究與介紹》（胡志明市：總合出版社，2020），頁149。

12. Beneath the bronze statue of Quách Đàm (郭琰) beside the Bình Tây Market in Ho Chi Minh City stands an inscribed stele that reads as follows: "Mr. Guo Yan (郭琰, Quách Đàm) was a native of Longkeng Village, Chao'an, Guangdong (廣東潮安龍坑鄉). He came to Vietnam at a young age, built his fortune in the rice trade, and became a man of great wealth in the region. Known for his generosity, he was always willing to do good and held charitable deeds in high regard. When Cholon was planning the construction of a new market, Mr. Guo provided substantial financial support, enabling the project to be completed successfully. In recognition of his contributions, the local government commended him and had a bronze statue cast in his likeness to permanently commemorate his achievements. Mr. Guo was born in 1863 and passed away in 1927. This text was written by Mr. Yip Pak-hang (葉伯行), former President of the Chambre de Commerce Chinoise de Cochi Chine. "
(「郭琰先生，粵之潮安龍坑人也。少來越，以米業起家成鉅富，性慷慨樂善好義。會提岸擬建新市，先生極力相助，俾底於成。政府嘉馬，因立銅像，示不忘也。先生誕於西元一八六三年，卒於一九二七年云。前南圻中華總局商會會長葉伯行撰。」)
Cited from: 范玉紅：《胡志明市漢喃碑文：考究與介紹》（胡志明市：總合出版社，2020），頁337。

13. To the left of the Yi An Assembly Hall, Chính Nghĩa Primary School houses an ancient stele whose inscription records the hall's receipt of funding from Quách Đàm (郭琰) as follows: "On the first day of the eleventh month of the thirtieth year of the Guangxu reign (December 7, 1904), the Teochew Bang Tonghe Company provided the capital to lease land and construct surrounding small houses, totaling one hundred and four units. It was agreed that each house would pay an annual ground rent of three silver dollars to this hall. The term of this lease is twenty years, expiring on December 7, 1924. Upon the expiration of the lease, all the small houses (厝仔) constructed with the capital invested by Tonghe Company shall be returned in full to the Yi An Assembly Hall for management, with the hall collecting the rents as the hall's permanent property. This matter has been specially inscribed and erected on a stone stele, and both parties shall each retain a copy of the written contract as evidence. Announced by the Yi An Assembly Hall."
(「光緒三十年十一月初一日，即西一千九百零四年十二月七號，啟潮州幫通合號備資租建週圍厝仔，共一百零四間。計每間每年納本會管地租銀三元。公義租至二十年，即西一千九百二十四年十二月七號為滿到期之日，資本具体該厝仔一概全歸還本會管收租，以為永遠蒸業。特此勒碑外各有合約守存劇。義安會館公啟。」)
Cited from: 范玉紅：《胡志明市漢喃碑文：考究與介紹》（胡志明市：總合出版社，2020），頁340。

14. 范玉紅：《胡志明市漢喃碑文：考究與介紹》（胡志明市：總合出版社，2020），頁122。