A Brief Discussion on Pre-Qin Theories of Human Nature

When discussing Pre-Qin theories of human nature (先秦人性論), we naturally think of Mencius (孟子, c. 371 BC – c. 289 BC)'s theory of the goodness of human nature and Xunzi (荀子, c. 310 BC – c. 238 BC)'s theory of the evil of human nature. Mr. Mou Zongsan (牟宗三, 1909-1995) said: "It was not until Mencius that the exploration of the essential nature of human beings began (至孟子之時，性之問題正式成立)."¹Mr. Xu Fuguan (徐復, 1902-1982) also said: " The concept of innate human goodness was not formally and explicitly articulated until Mencius (性善兩字，直到孟子始能正式明白地說出。)."²Both modern philosophers pointed out that the theory of the original goodness of human nature only matured with Mencius, with the demarcation line being that the virtue-based meaning of the integration of mind and nature possessed transcendent significance. In other words, theories of human nature before Mencius or by those of different schools all belonged to naturalistic theories of human nature, meaning that human nature is innate and natural. The most representative are Gaozi (告子, c. 420 BC – 350 BC), who debated human nature with Mencius, and the great Confucian scholar Xunzi of the late Warring States period. Gaozi spoke of "The qualities one is born with are called innate nature (生之謂性)."; Xunzi spoke of "Innate nature is the natural disposition one is born with (生之所以然者謂之性)."—both are prime examples of " Defining Human Nature from the Origin of Human Life (即生言性)". Apart from the Gaozi and Xunzi schools, fragments from ancient texts reveal that theories of human nature were quite prosperous and developed during the Pre-Qin period. For ease of explanation, we cite two passages of material below:

Shi Shuo (世碩) of the Zhou Dynasty (周朝, c. 1046 BC – 256 BC) believed that human nature inherently contains both good and evil qualities: If one excavates the goodness in human nature, nurtures it and promotes its development, goodness will continuously grow; If one allows the evil in human nature to run wild and lets it grow unchecked, evil will gradually spread. From this perspective, human temperament is like the mutual generation of yin and yang, with both good and evil aspects coexisting simultaneously. Whether one ultimately tends toward good or evil depends entirely on how one is nurtured and guided in later life. Therefore, Shi Shuo specifically wrote a work titled "The Book of Nurturing Nature (《養性書》)". Furthermore, Fu Zijian (虙子賤), Qi Diaokai (漆雕開), and Gongsun Nizi (公孫尼子) also explored issues related to human nature. Their views were roughly similar to Shi Shuo's but with slight differences, all centered on the proposition that "human nature contains both good and evil." (周人世碩以為人性有善有惡，舉人之善性，養而致之則善長；惡性，養而致之則惡長。如此，則情性各有陰陽，善惡在所養焉。故世子作《養性書》一篇。虙子賤、漆雕開、公孫尼子之徒，亦論情性，與世子相出入，皆言性有善有惡。) ("Lunheng: On Original Nature" 《論衡·本性》)

Gongduzi (公都子) asked: "Gaozi says: 'Human nature is originally neither good nor not good.' Some people say: 'Human nature can become good or not good—thus when King Wen (周文王, 1112 – 1050 BC) and King Wu of Zhou (周武王, 1076 – 1043 BC) flourished, the people loved to do good; when King You (周幽王, c. 796 – 771 BC) and King Li of Zhou (周厲王, 890 – 828 BC) were in power, the people preferred cruelty.' Others say: 'Some people are good by nature, while others are not good by nature—thus with a sage like Yao (堯) as ruler, there were the common people like Xiang (象, Shun’s brother) who did evil; with a man of bad character like Gusou (瞽瞍, Shun’s father) as father, there was a sage son like Shun (舜); with a tyrant like Zhou (商紂王, ? – c. 1046 BC) as elder brother's son who became ruler, there were worthy ministers like Weizi (微子啟) and Bi Gan (比干).' Now if you say 'human nature is fundamentally good,' then are all these claims wrong?" (公都子曰：“告子曰：‘性無善無不善也。’或曰：‘性可以為善，可以為不善，是故文武興則民好善，幽厲興則民好暴。’或曰：‘有性善，有性不善，是故以堯為君而有象，以瞽瞍為父而有舜，以紂為兄之子且以為君，而有微子啟、王子比干。’今曰‘性善’，然則彼皆非歟﹖”) ("Mencius: Gaozi I" 《孟子·告子上》)

The Eastern Han early period thinker Wang Chong (王充, 27 – c. 97 AD) pointed out that Shi Shuo of the Warring States period wrote the "The Book of Nurturing Nature (《養性書》)" advocating that human nature contains both good and evil, and that the manifestation of good and evil in people depends on postnatal education and cultivation. The distinctive feature of Shi Shuo's theory of human nature lies in discussing nature and emotions through yin and yang. Other later Confucian followers such as Fu Zijian, Qi Diaokai, and Gongsun Nizi all proposed their own theories of human nature, which aligned with Shi Shuo's theory of coexisting good and evil. From this, it appears that there were quite a few thinkers who supported the coexistence of good and evil. When Mencius discussed human nature with his disciple Gongdu Zi, the following theories were mentioned: 1. Gaozi's theory of neither good nor evil; 2. A theory similar to Gaozi's that nature can be either good or evil, which emphasizes the relationship between the ruling atmosphere and political environment and human nature; 3. The theory of innate good and evil, based on the character of historical figures—for example, alongside the sage Emperor Yao there existed the obstinate Xiang; Shun was a model of filial son, worthy minister, and wise ruler, yet his father Gu Sou was a person who could not distinguish right from wrong or good from evil; King Zhou was a tyrant, while his elder brother Weizi Qi and uncle Prince Bigan were both wise men. In summary, there were four theories of human nature in the Warring States period: the theory of coexisting good and evil, the theory of neither good nor evil, the theory that nature can be either good or evil, and the theory of innate good and evil.

In the pre-Qin period, there was also a philosophical thought that explained human nature and emotions through the concept of Qi (氣, vital energy). The "King Wen of Zhou's Examination of Talent (文王官人)" chapter in "the Record of Rites by Dai the Elder (大戴禮記)" discusses five types of moral Qi (道德之氣) existing within the body: Heart (心氣), Trustworthiness (信氣), Righteousness (義氣), Wisdom (智氣), and Courage (勇氣). Heart can be divided into good and bad:

Those with vain and arrogant Hearts speak in scattered and disorderly voices; Those with harmonious and sincere Hearts speak in steady and rhythmic voices; Those with mean and perverse Hearts speak in hoarse and unpleasant voices; Those with generous and gentle Hearts speak in warm and pleasing voices. Those who possess the spirit of Trustworthiness conduct themselves with balance and harmony; Those who possess the spirit of Righteousness act and speak appropriately and freely; Those who possess the spirit of Wisdom handle matters with clarity and thoroughness; Those who possess the spirit of Courage have a character that is strong and upright (心氣華誕者，其聲流散；心氣順信者，其聲順節；心氣鄙戾者，其聲嘶醜；心氣寬柔者，其聲溫好。信氣中易，義氣時舒，智氣簡備，勇氣壯直). ("the Record of Rites by Dai the Elder: King Wen of Zhou's Examination of Talent" 《大戴禮記·文王官人》)

"King Wen of Zhou's Examination of Talent", also as "King Wen of Zhou's Observing Talent (文王觀人)," involves observing and understanding a person's character and temperament through the analysis of their voice. These moral energies are physiological in nature; therefore, morality originates from physiological formation. Additionally, the discussion of human nature in the "Record of Music (樂記)" chapter of the "Book of Rites (禮記)" carries metaphysical implications. However, the text emphasizes that the harmonious Qi and adverse Qi within the body are influenced and guided by sound, which will transform a person's temperament. Both schools of thought believe that morality originates from the natural state of physiology.

The Warring States excavated text " Human nature originates from the mandate of heaven (《性自命出》)" is a treatise on human nature written after Confucius but before Mencius. Its discovery fills a gap in the development of Confucian Heart-mind and Nature Theory (心性論) between Confucius and Mencius. In the bamboo slip text, heart (心), nature (性), and emotion (情) are all innate and natural, without transcendent implications. Therefore, moral virtue comes from education in poetry and books, and cultivation through ritual and music, aiming to enable individuals to "Virtue arises from inner nature (生德於中)." The bamboo slip text holds that music has the fastest educational effect, stating it "The key to cultivating goodness and returning to one's original nature lies in maintaining careful self-discipline and guarding one's heart in solitude (返善復始也慎)." Music purifies the heart-mind. "Shuowen Jiezi (《說文解字》)" dictionary interprets "慎" as "謹". Some scholars explanate it as "誠".³ This means sincerity is a prerequisite for returning to the original goodness of human nature. Goodness is the initial state of human nature and emotion. This constitutes a theory of natural goodness (自然性善論).

The ancient Chinese held a belief in natural goodness. Heaven and Earth created humanity, and naturally, human physiology and the structure of all things inherit this benevolent essence of life. This "natural growth tendency"⁴ leads to the concept of the beauty and goodness of human nature. Later, when this benevolence was essentialized, it gave birth to the theory of innate goodness. We often quote this verse from the Book of Songs: "Heaven created all people, and all tangible things have their inherent principles. The constant way that people uphold is innate from birth; therefore, they all pursue virtuous goodness (天生烝民，有物有則。民之秉彝、好是懿德)." ("The Book of Songs: Major Odes: Zheng Min"《詩經·大雅·烝民》) Mencius used these four lines of poetry to demonstrate that the Four Beginnings "This goodness is not imposed on me from the outside, but is something I inherently possess by nature (非由外鑠我也，我固有之也)." ("Mencius: Gaozi I" 《孟子·告子上》), as transcendental moral virtues. We believe that what the poem describes pertains to the meaning of natural goodness; however, it was Mencius who truly essentialized it.

參考資料

腳註

1.牟宗三：《心體與性體（上）》，（長春：吉林出版集團有限責任公司，2003），頁25。

2.徐復觀：《中國人性論史 (先秦篇)》，（上海：上海三聯書店，2001），頁141。

3.陳偉和廖名春訓釋為“誠”。見李天虹：《〈性自命出〉研究》，（武汉：湖北教育出版社，2002），頁159-160。

4.楊澤波：《孟子性善論研究》，（上海：上海人民出版社，2016），頁90。